Medical Teamwork and Patient Safety: The Evidence-based Relation. Table 2

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Table 2. Individual and Team-level Training Strategies

Strategy	Definition	Level	Sources
Assertiveness training	Uses behavioral modeling techniques to demonstrate both assertive and nonassertive behaviors; provides trainees with practice and feedback opportunities.	Individual	Smith-Jentsch, et al, 1996
Meta-cognitive training	Develops those skills that regulate cognitive thinking abilities, such as inductive and deductive reasoning.	Individual	Jentsch, 1997
Stress Exposure Training (SET)	Provides coping strategies to help trainees better respond to various stressors.	Individual and team	Driskell, Johnston, 1998
Simulator training	Reproduces in a classroom environment the same conditions, equipment, and performance demands that trainees will experience on the job.	Individual and team	Salas, Dickinson, Converse, et al, 1992
Team training	Provides interventions that (a) convey information; (b) demonstrate teamwork behaviors and skills; (c) encourage practice, and; (d) include feedback to help trainees achieve the necessary proficiencies, at the individual and team levels.	Team	(a) Salas, Cannon-Bowers, 2000; (b-d) Salas, et al, 1997
Cross-training	Trading roles and tasks among team members, so that each may develop a better appreciation and facility for coworkers' responsibilities and overall team goals.	Team	Salas, et al, 1997; Volpe, Cannon-Bowers, Salas, et al, 2001
Team coordination training/Crew Resource Management	Training to improve task management skills and communication (both explicit and implicit), to encourage backup behaviors, and to provide practice opportunities for members of a particular workplace community.	Team	Entin, Serfaty, 1999; Bowers, Blickendersfer, Morgan, 1998
Team building	Focuses on improved role clarification, goal-setting exercises, problem solving skills, and interpersonal relations.	Team	Salas, Rozell, Mullen, et al, 1999
Self-correction training	Helps individuals and teams monitor, evaluate, and revise deficient behaviors, through instructive feedback.	Individual and team	Smith-Jentsch, et al, 1998; Blickensderfer, Cannon-Bowers, Salas, 1997

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