Alter et al. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III³

Population-based household sample in the United States

21, 241
(1.80% overall and 2.3% in adults ≥20 years)

• Race or ethnicity.
• Sex.
• Marital status.
• Poverty index.
• Education.
• Urban residence.
• Region of residence.
• Military service status.
• Country of birth.
• Healthcare worker.
• Cocaine use.
• Marijuana use.
• Age at first sexual intercourse.
• Number of lifetime sexual partners.
• Herpes simplex 2 virus infection.

Marital status:
Divorced or separated: 1.70 (1.08-2.66)
Never married, married or widowed: 1.00

Education:
≤12 years: 1.92 (1.01-3.67)
<12 years: 1.00

Poverty index:
Below poverty level: 2.99 (1.69-5.27)
At or above poverty level: 1.00

Marijuana use:
≤100 times: 2.99 (1.69-5.27)
1-99 times: 1.15 (0.61-2.16)
Never: 1.00

Cocaine use:
Ever: 4.70 (2.49-8.87)
Never: 1.00

Number of sexual partners:
<50: 5.16 (1.80-14.73)
2-49: 2.54 (1.14-5.66)
0-1: 1.00

Age at first sexual intercourse:
<18 y: 2.94 (1.50-5.78)
≤18 y: 1.00

Kaur et al. National Hepatitis Screening Survey³⁸

Screening program at 40 mostly urban centers in the United States

13, 997

(7.00%)

• Age.
• Sex.
• Ethnicity.
• Occupation.
• Blood transfusion.
• Hemodialysis.
• Surgery.
• Intravenous drug use.
• Sex with intravenous drug user.
• Sex with multiple partners.
• Needle-stick injury.
• Born in Southeast Asia or Africa.
• Vaccinated for hepatitis B virus infection.

Sex:
Male: 3.60 (2.66-4.87)
Female: 1.00

Ethnicity:
White or Hispanic: 0.57 (0.39-0.83)
Other: 1.00

Blood transfusion:
Yes: 4.09 (2.97-5.62)
No: 1.00

Hemodialysis:
Yes: 10.95 (3.85-31.13)
No: 1.00

Intravenous drug use:
Yes: 23.34 (15.21-35.81)
No: 1.00

Sex with intravenous drug user:
Yes: 7.29 (4.74-11.21)
No: 1.00

Vaccinated for hepatitis B virus infection:
Yes: 0.37 (0.22-0.62)
No: 1.00

Bellentani et al. Dionysos Study³⁷

Population-based study in Northern Italy

6 917

(3.2%)

• Male sex.
• Alcohol intake <30 g/day.
• Hepatitis among the cohabiting.
• Surgical procedure.
• Dental procedures.
• Intravenous drug use.
• Acupuncture.
• Blood transfusion.
• Animal bites.
• Homosexuality.

Hepatitis among cohabiting persons:
Yes: 2.0 (1.4-2.8)
No: 1.00

Intravenous drug use:
Yes: 18.4 (5.3-64.0)
No: 1.00

Animal bites:
Yes: 1.6 (1.0-2.5)
No: 1.00

Blood transfusion
Yes: 2.2 (1.4-3.4)
No: 1.00

Dubois et al²

Population-based study throughout France

6 283

(1.2%)

• Past or present intravenous drug abuse.
• Unemployment.
• Tattoos.
• History of transfusions.
• Travel in developing countries.
• Voluntary abortion.
• Sexually transmitted disease.
• Casual sex partners.
• Sexual contact with intravenous drug users.
• Surgery with major blood loss.
• Acupuncture.
• Injection with reusable glass syringe.
• Dental surgery.
• Sexual contact with HCV-positive partner.
• Homosexual practices.
• Education level.

Intravenous drug use:
Yes: 29.2 (3.8-225.7)
No: 1.00

History of transfusion:
Yes: 7.0 (1.7-15.1)
No: 1.00

Unemployment:
Yes: 3.1 (1.2-8.1)
No: 1.00

* HCV = hepatitis C virus